Gelling (1988) notes that Scandinavian settlement names, which are prolific in the east of England, can be broken down into three categories: bý, Þorp, and the so-called "Grimston-hybrids". She elaborates as follows:

Bý, for which there is no Old English (OE) equivalent, is the standard Scandinavian word for "settlement". Scalby (ER) and Bagby (NR) are examples that denote land settled by individuals named Skalli and Baggi. Although this element generally offers very little difficulty with regard to etymological identification, Cameron (1996) refers to documentary evidence which demonstrates that, in some cases, -by has replaced OE byrig, the dative plural of burh "fortified place" later "manor house". He goes on to observe that while bý may also be interpreted as "farm" or "village", it is often impossible to decide which is the exact sense. In the North Riding, for example, it still frequently denotes an individual farm, though it has been proposed that such usage is Norwegian rather than Danish.. It is interesting to note that there are place-names in modern Scandinavia which have identical etymologies to present-day English ones (See Table 1).

Table 1

Denmark	England
Åby	Aby
Dalby	Dalby
Tjøneby	Thurnby
Østerby	Asterby

Þorp, according to Cameron (1970), belongs to a later period of name-giving and signifies a secondary settlement or farm of lesser importance than that of the bý type. For example Towthorpe (NR) and Gawthorpe (WR) indicate the presence of Tóvi and Gaukr. However, not all toponomists agree with this view. Some consider that þorp is not special to Danish settlements and suggest that, in many cases, it may be a modification of OE þrop which has the same meaning.

Notwithstanding, Cameron (1996) observes that whilst the English form appears in medieval and modern spellings, such spellings from the Danish word rarely appear before the 16th century. Moreover, regional distribution frequently and clearly indicates the origins of a particular name.

Grimston-hybrids are place-names made up of a Viking personal name and OE tun ("farmstead", "village"), and which are exemplified by Rolston (ER), Hróllfr and Oulston (NR), Ulfr. With regard to geographical location, it has been noted that these hybrids are rarely found in areas where locations in bý cluster together, and that they generally intermingle with English place-name settlements. It has, therefore, been suggested (e.g. Cameron, 1971; Fellows-Jensen, 1972) that these hybrids are in fact English settlements that were taken over by the Vikings and renamed*.

*However, Cameron (1996) adds that there is also evidence that suggests that some English settlements thus occupied kept their original names.

Furthermore, Cameron (1971) and Fellows-Jensen (1972) propose that bý and þorp settlements represent the colonization of land that was unoccupied at the time of the Scandinavian incursions and, additionally, consider that þorp settlements are of a later period than those of bý.

These therefore are the characteristics of Scandinavian place-names, but what of the nature of the settlers themselves?

The Danes

Cameron (1996) notes that although the newcomers were, and are, generally referred to as Danes, place-names indicate the presence of other groups. For example, in addition to Norwegian settlements such as Normanby (WR) "village of the Norwegians", there is Ferrensby (WR) relating to Faroese and Irby (NR) signalling the presence of either Norwegians from Ireland or, indeed, Irish settlers. In some areas, the Danes themselves must have been notable as a conspicuous minority to have given rise to such names as Danby (NR) and Denaby (WR), both meaning "village of the Danes".

Cameron (1996) goes on to observe that the Norwegians generally settled in the north-west, a region to which they migrated from the Gaelic speaking areas of Man, Ireland and Strathclyde. Moreover, he claims that place-names of the north-west display distinctive characteristics which are not generally found in the Danelaw. For example:

• The inversion of the elements in a compound name as exemplified by Brigsteer (Westmorland) "bridge Styr" i.e."Styr's bridge".

• The incidence of Goidelic personal names in place-names such as Melmerby (NR) Melmor; Duggleby (ER) Dufgall; Yockenthwaite (WR) Eogan.

• The occurrence of the Irish loan word œghi ("shieling", "hill pasture") only found in areas of Norwegian-Gaelic. Arras (ER) and Airyholme (NR) are from, respectively, the nominative and dative plurals of this word.

• Distinctly Norwegian words like brekka, fell, gil and slakki occur infrequently outside the north-west. Similarly sœtr "mountain pasture", "shieling" is only found in the hilly regions of the north-west and in parts of Yorkshire. It appears in such names as Appersett (NR) "apple-tree" and Wintersett (WR) denoting a shieling used in winter. Another Old Norwegian words skáli "temporary hut or shed" has carried over into dialect as scale. Hence we have such as Scholes (WR), Summerscales (WR) and Gammersgill (NR), the last referring to "Gammall's hut".

• The survival of the genitive singular form -ar as -er, e.g. Amotherby (NR) the "village of Eymundr".

Modification of English through Scandinavian influence

Cameron (1996) indicates that the Scandinavian influence on place-names could be either phonetic or lexical. For example, he mentions that OE <c>before <e> or <i> (as in cese "cheese" or cild "child") was pronounced in the modern manner of cheese and child. Similarly <sc> (as in scip "ship") was pronounced ship. The following table summarizes the position and gives contrasting examples of modern place-names both subject to, and escaping, modification under the impact of Scandinavian pronunciation.

Table 2

Sources

Cameron, K. (1970) Scandinavian settlement in the territory of the five boroughs: the place-name evidence. Part II, place-names in Thorp., Medieval Scandinavia III, 35-49.

Cameron, K. (1971) Scandinavian settlement in the territory of the five boroughs: the place-name evidence. Part III, the Grimston hybrids, England before the Conquest: Studies in Primary Sources Presented to Dorothy Whitelock, ed. P. Clemoes and Kathleen Hughes. Cambridge, 147-163.

Cameron, K. (1996) English Place-Names, London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.

Fellows Jensen, G. (1972) Scandinavian Settlement-Names in Yorkshire, Copenhagen.

Gelling, M. (1988) Signposts to the Past, Second Edition, Chichester: Phillimore

Dative: the form of the noun or noun phrase which signals that the said noun / noun phrase is the receiver of an action. In this case, byrig may be interpreted as, for example, "(somebody living) at the fortified places".

Goidelic: A type of Celtic which evolved in Ireland and which later reached the IOM and Scotland. The version of Celtic spoken by the Britons is called Brythonic.

Genitive: the form of the noun which signals possession. Thus, in this case, Bellerby (NR) may be interpreted as "the village of Belgr".

nominative:the form of a noun which indicates that it is the subject or actor in a sentence. For example, compare the nominative singular buð "the shelter" with the dative plural form buðum meaning "at the shelters". Arras therefore simply means "the shielings".